The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

Date: 1973-1988
Location: Afghanistan

Soviet troops withdrawing from Afghanistan in 1988

        Muhammad Zahir Shah was deposed as king of Afghanistan in a Marxist-led coup in 1973. The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) government of Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin then began a programme of secularization that offended conservative Muslims and brutally suppressed dissent. When 50 Russian advisors were murdered in the Afghan city of Herat, the USSR invaded to restore order on 24th of December 1978. 

A Soviet-made AK-47 Kalashnikov assault rifle used by both Soviet soldiers
and Afghan Mujahideen fighters during the 1978-1988 conflict in Afghanistan

        An Islamic resistance group then declared a Jihad (holy war) aganist the USSR and PDPA. These Islamist Mujahideen guerrillas fought off the Soviet troops, and even began to threaten Soviet aircraft. The war was vastly expensive for the USSR, and in February 1988, under firm international pressure, President Mikhail Gorbachev announced the withdrawal of Soviet troops, leaving the Mujahideen and PDPA in a stalemate.

Blitzkrieg (Lightning War)

        In German, Blitzkrieg means lightning war. Blitzkrieg was named so because it included surprise attacks, "Lightning fast" rapid advances into enemy territory, with coordinated massive air attacks, which struck and shocked the enemy as if it was struck by lightning. The German military in World War 2 achieved most of its great victories with the Blitzkrieg tactic.

The classic characteristic of what is commonly known as "blitzkrieg" is a highly mobile form of infantry and armour working in combined arms teams.

The Development of Blitzkrieg

        The First World War was a long static trench war in which artillery and machine guns made mobile ground warfare almost impossible for both infantry and cavalry. After the war, various military establishments gave various levels of attention to further study and developing new weapons. The German military bound by severe post-war limitations, was practically forced to develop the most efficient new tactics, which naturally involved using tanks and aircraft for mobile ground warfare.

Heinz Guderian

        In 1929, a German infantry officer, Heinz Guderian, was assigned to the common German-Russian tank school in Kazan, which was established to allow Germans to bypass the post-war limitations by training in operating tanks in Russia. Guderian read British books about the new principles of tank warfare, and while Liddell-Hart's ideas were given little attention, Guderian developed them over and demonstrated them to his superiors in military excercises and war games. Germany's new leader, Adolf Hitler, inteneded to go to a major war again, and as soon as possible, and he pushed the German military back in full shape, ignoring the peace treaty's limitations and spending a huge portion of the budget on re-armament. Hitler needed the right tool for his grand war plans, something that would make his future war very different from World War 1, and will fully exploit the German advantages in military professionalism and industry. Although he was just a Corporal in World War 1, Hitler had good and creative military perception, both tactical and technical, and so when he observed a combined exercise of tanks and motorized infantry led by Guderian shortly after he came to power, he immediately understood that he found his military tool.

Charlemagne

Date: 778 - 814 AD
Location: France, Germany, Northern Italy, Northern Spain


Charlemagne, the latin word for 'Charles the Great' was a Frankish King in the Dark Ages in Europe. The Franks were a tribe of barbarians that swept in from the east and invaded the Roman Empire starting from the 5th century AD. Charlemagne, born in the Carolingian Dynasty, was the son of Pepin the Short, who agreed to divide his empire amongst his two sons, Charles and Carloman. However, Carloman died in 788, leaving all the kingdom to his brother, and thus keeping it rather stable. Charlemagne first led a campaign against the Saxons, a warring peoples who lived to the south of Denmark, and won several great victories. With Saxony annexed, the king recieved a message from the pope saying that the vile pagan Lombards were threatening to besiege Rome and capture him, and so requested Charlemagne to invade Italy. By the time Charlemagne had defeated the Lombards, he was crowned 'Holy Roman Emperor' as a reviving of the old idea of the Roman Empire. The emperor built several centers for learning and art in Aachen, Paris, and many other cities, although it is believed that he was never able to learn how to read. He later accepted an alliance requested by Harun Al-Rashid, the Caliph of Baghdad, to destroy the Emirate of Cordova in Spain. Charlemagne now began one of his last campaigns, the Spanish March. Having managed to cross the Pyrenees, Charlemagne siezed Catalonia, which held the city of Barcelona, but could go no further. This also aided him with respect to defending his lands in southern France. He was a greatly religious man and always loved to see his people learn; it also said that he was of unusually tall height, with broad shoulders and held himself like a man. Charlemagne died peacefully in 814, giving away his kingdom to three of his successors, who divided the empire among themselves and helped shape the end of the Dark Ages and the dawn of the Middle Ages, with the Kingdom of France formed.

The Greco-Persian Wars

Date: 499 - 449 BC

Location: Greece, Western Anatolia, Thrace, Macedonia

The Greco-Persian Wars, which were declared by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great were, hence the name, conflicts between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire. Darius, who at first planned to invade Greece after annexing Thrace, suffered a defeat by the Athenians and Thebians at Marathon in 490 BC, when 10000 Greeks held the pathway to Athens. An army of 25000 Persians arrived off the coast of Marathon, several kilometers far from Athens. After the significant weakening of the Persian army, the Persians saw that they had to retreat, or better yet, get back on the ships and sail to Athens. The Greeks then force marched back to defend their home city. It sure seemed like a marathon too! Luckily for the Greeks, the Persian army was beaten off and Darius and his army were forced to go back home.

Darius's son, Xerxes the Great, came to the throne right after his father. At first, he had to deal with several revolts throughout his empire, but then, he decided to turn his attention to the Greeks. He planned on leading the largest invasion the Greeks had ever seen, and so departed from Sardis alongside his army. At Hellespont, he ordered to build a fleet in case anything sudden happens, notwithstanding the fact that he had to cross the narrow strait. The Spartans and Athenians decided to ally briefly, only to beat off Xerxes, and so the two armies first clashed at Thermoplylae in 480 BC. Unfortunately for Xerxes, he suffered a crushing defeat, and led his other army, that lay right across the mountains, to Athens. There, 300 Athenian soldiers were defending, and Xerxes managed to kill all but two. He then entered Athens, which was uninhabited; all the citizens seemed to have fled. The only hope for the Athenians now was to defeat the Persians at sea, at the crucial Battle of Salamis that same year. Xerxes then returned home, but his army remained in Greece for another year until they were once again defeated at Platea. Persia was no longer a threat to Greece.

The Renaissance

Date: 1400 - 1600

Location: Western Europe

The Renaissance, a French word meaning 'rebirth' is the time in Western Europe between the 15th and 17th century when a reviving of literature, arts, and education took place. It first began when two major events happened. The first was when Italian scholars travelled to the Muslim cities of Cordova, Granada, and Seville for better research, as the Muslims were much more advanced than the Europeans, and came back with the highest standards of education. The other cause was the Ottoman annexation of Greece and Constantinople, where the greatest scientists and philosophers existed from Classical times. The reason was that Greeks had to travel elsewhere for safety from the Ottomans, and Italy was roughly 200 kilometers by sea. This is why Venice, Florence, and Genoa became rather prosperous centers for learning and the arts. Europe was going through a beautiful era; with the printing press recently invented (mid-15th century) by Johannes Gutenberg also made selling books much cheaper, which meant that even the poor could afford to learn. In Florence, Michelangelo Buonarotti, a brilliant artist, designed the beginning of the Renaissance with his tremendous painting and sculptures, such as the statues of 'David' - the most famous of his works of art - and 'Pieta', and the entire inside of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. Some of these paintings included the 'Creation of Man', which is found on the front wall. Leonardo Da Vinci was another great artist and engineer; he painted the famous 'Mona Lisa' and is well recognized for his earliest invention of a 'Flying Machine' which forms the basics of flight today.
Other Italian men in the Renaissance included Raphaello and Andrea Boticelli. Navigation at sea also became much safer and ships much more efficient, which led to the discovery of America by Christopher Colombus in 1492. The Renaissance soon spread to France, Germany, England, Spain, and Portugal. As for Germany, the Renaissance allowed man to question his religion, which led to the Protestant Reformation in the early 1500s led by Martin Luther. This caused the church to split in two, as Protestantism spread into England, Germany, and Switzerland. The significant weakening of the Holy Roman Emperor led to the loss of several German Kingdoms to Charles V, King of Spain, and later to the Independence of the Netherlands between 1581 and 1648. Many Dutch artists and scholars soon arose, such as Rembrandt, and Dutch sailors set sail in search for colonization in the Americas, the East Indies, South Africa, and Australia. Colonialism was mostly recognized by the Spanish, who established an vast empire in the Americas in the early 1500s. The last period of the Renaissance, which ended the era and began a new one (the Age of Reason) was to be the Baroque Period, between the early 1600s and the early 1700s.

The First World War

Date: 1914 - 1918
Location: France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Serbia, Russia, and the Atlantic Ocean.

Europe in 1914

The First World War, also known as the Great War, began as a small conflict in Serbia, when a group of rebels assassinated the Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary directly sought revenge and declared war on Serbia. Russia, Serbia's ally, then declared war on Austria-Hungary. Germany and the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary's allies, declared war on Russia. Finally, France and Britain, Russia's allies, declared war on the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey). The very first of conflicts occured when the German Keiser Wilhelm II began building a huge navy to compete with and destroy the British. At first, the German fleet was crushed completely at the Battle of the Falklands in the southern Atlantic; one German ship, Dresden, fled! The British never found Dresden, and so they built two new ships both named HMS Invincible. Dresden no longer had a chance of survival. Later on, the two alliances (Entente and Central) built trenches on their borders. Day and night, soldiers fought in these trenches to protect their frontiers. By 1918, a treaty at Versailles took place and ended the war, also threatening an allied attack on Germany if it made any sudden movements or acquisitions.

The Islamic Empire

Date: 632 - 1193 AD
Location: Arabia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, North Africa, and Spain

     Expansion under the Prophet Muhammad, 622–632     Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphs, 632–661     Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750

Ever Since the death of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in 632 AD, a great Muslim nation was born, which by the mid-7th century, already covered Arabia and a large area in Mesopotamia. The first caliph of the Muslim Empire, which is officially to be Muhammad's 'successor', was Abu Bakr. The Rashidun Caliphate, as it was called, then experienced three more caliphs (respectively): Omar, Uthman, and Ali. By the end of Ali's reign, which was in the year 661 AD, the Muslim Empire covered most of North Africa, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Arabia, and a large area in Persia. Sadly, a civil war errupted that led to the split of Islam into the Sunni branch and the Shiite branch. From 661 to 750 AD, a ruling family from Damascus ran the empire and annexed several areas into their nation. Amongst them was the Muslim invasion of Spain. A Berber general, by the name of Tariq Ibn Ziyad, departed from Morocco in 711 AD to cross the Strait of Gibraltar and spread Islam. The Visigoth King of Spain, Roderick, soon suffered a crushing defeat and lost all the territories in Spain within a year. Other acquisitions included Morocco, the rest of Persia, and the Indus Valley. In 750 AD, the Muslim governors of Spain declared their people to be independent and formed a rival caliphate, the Emirate of Cordova. That same year, the throne of the empire was given away to the Abbasids of Cairo. The most famous Abbasid caliphate, which ruled at the times of Charlemagne, was Harun Al-Rashid. Mostly recognized for his alliance with the Franks against the Emirate in Spain, Harun managed to construct a new city on the banks of the Tigris River, Baghdad, which, in his own reign, became the richest city in the known world. Persia soon claimed its independence, as well as the Fatimid Caliphate and the establishment of the Almohad Empire that included Morocco and Andalucia. In 1187, the son of Yusuf Al-Ayyub, which be Saladin, a rich Kurdish man, formed a new dynasty, the Ayyubid Caliphate. Saladin's primary goals were to drive out the Crusaders from the levant and annex all the territories that were lost by the Fatimids 100 years before his reign. that same year, Saladin laid siege on Jerusalem, which was captured peacefully within some three months. This marked the beginning of a Fourth Crusade to retake Jerusalem, but within a few years, Saladin managed to conquer the entire Levant. Despite those territorial expansions, Saladin suffered a defaet from Richard the Lionheart at Arsuf in 1193.

The Thirty Years' War

Date: 1618 - 1648
Location: Germany

The Battle of Lützen by Carl Wahlbom shows the death of King Gustavus Adolphus on 16 November 1632.

The Protestant Reformation, that was established by Martin Luther, a German Monk, led to several wars in Europe the following two centuries. Amongst the first of these wars was the Thirty Years' War that commenced in 1618. Several German States allied with Gustvus Adolphus of Sweden against the Catholic forces of the Holy Roman Empire. The army of Gustavus, that grew larger and larger through the surrender of several German States until it reached some 170000 men spread throughout Germany, had clashed with the Catholic army for the first time decisively at Lutzen on November 6, 1632. Although Gustavus Adolphus was killed in battle, his army won a glorious and triumphal victory, which, in 1648, led to the surrender of Albrecht von Wallenstein, end of the war, and the considerable spread of protestantism throughout Germany.

The Roman Emperor: Augustus Caesar

Date: 44 BC - 14 CE
Location: Italy, the Mediterranean

The statue known as Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century

        After Julius Caesar died in 44 BC, his cheif lieutenant Mark Antony, attempting to manipulate public opinion allied himself with Octavian - Caesar's 18-year-old adoptive son - in order to exploit his family connections and gain political support. Antony miscalculated, for Octavian, although young, was even shrewder than Caesar. He remained in alliance with Antony and Lepidus - who played the role of financier in this "Second Triumvirate" - for only as long as it took to defeat the armies that had been raised by Brutus and Cassius, Caesar's murderers.
        In 32 BC, war broke out among the Second Triumvirate. At Actium the following year, Antony was defeated, and both he and his mistress, the Egyptian pharaoh Cleopatra, commited suicide. Octavian did seek immediate revenge against Antony's partisans. Nor did he have himself made Dictator, as Caesar had done. Instead, he manipulated Republican politics to acquire supreme power without seeming to usurp the Senate's authority.

        In 27 BC, Octavian was granted a special form of authority, known as proconsular imperium, for 10 years, which in effect allowed him to act as he chose in all provinces where the army was currently based. In the same year, he took the title "Augustus". In 23 BC, Augustus acquired the permanent power of a tribune of the plebians, making him invulnerable to legal action. Although he did not refer to himself as an emperor, this was the position he now held.
        Augustus secured the empire's borders along the Danube river and sent armies into Germany, which he was about to conquer when a disastarous defeat in 9 CE caused a retreat from the Elbe river back to the Rhine. His last years saw a defensive stance along existing frontiers.

The War of the Spanish Succession

Date: 1701 - 1714
Location: France, the Netherlands, Spain, Germany, Italy

John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough

The War of the Spanish Succession was a conflict that arose when the previous King of Spain, Charles II, died and several European nations disagreed with the idea of coronating Philip V. Perhaps the most well-known of military tacticians at the time of the war was Sir John Churchill, the 1st Duke of Marlborough, who defeated his enemies several times in France, Spain, and Germany. Marlborough's most decisive victory was at Blenheim on August 13, 1704 in Bavaria, where the allied forces of the Kingdom of England, the Dutch Republic, the Austrian Empire, and the Holy Roman Empire crushed an opposing army of France and Bavaria. with 52000 troops and 60 guns, Marlbororough managed to defeat the Franco-Bavarian army by attacking their right flank, which was protected by the Danube River, while pursuing the main body of the army. 20000 of his enemies were drowned in the Danube as a result of charging cavalry, were killed, or wounded; 14000 were captured. Duc de Villard, Marlborough's opponent, suffered a crushing defeat that day, also having defeated only 7000 of Marlborogh's troops and wounded 4000. Seven years later, Marlborough won another tremendous victory at Maplequet, which gave England the upper hand in the war and led to surrender of the Franco-Bavarian alliance in 1714.

The Ancient Civilizations of Mesopotamia

Date: 4000 BC - 500 BC
Location: The Fertile Crescent

Since all the ice from the previous Ice Age melted, fertile lands allowed people to stop travelling everywhere, hunting and gathering, and start settling near rivers to farm.
By 4000 BC, many Mesopotamian cities emerged and began trading across the fertile lands and Egypt. They were the Sumerians... the first people ever to build a civilization to stand the test of time. The Sumerians invented the first wheel to be utilized in horse-driven carriages and so. In addition to the Sumerian Cuneiform in about 3500 BC, which was their writing system, the Sumerians also invented the sail. Although Sumer was not one empire but actually a number of city-states, the city-states shared the same type of government, theocracy. In a theocracy, religious leaders have full control over the government and are probably elected every certain length of time.
Around 2500 BC, groups of warring peoples from a region called Akkad conquered Sumer and became the top nation for about 700 to 1000 years.
During the 21st century BC, the city of Babylon began to flourish and gave way to an empire that would last for more than 400 years. At the empire's height under Hammurabi around 1700 BC, present-day Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, and Lebanon were united under one emperor.
A couple of hundred years later, the Hittites from Anatolia arrived at Mesopotamia with their new metal for making weapons, iron. The Hittite iron swords sliced right through the Babylonian bronze. After years of war, the Hittite Empire stretched from Anatolia, through Babylonia, and into Canaan.
The fierce fighters of the lands of Assyria soon built a huge Empire won by conquest. Primarily famous for their adroit war chariots and siege equipment, the Assyrians built an empire that covered all of southern Turkey, the entire Fertile Crescent, and Egypt by 666 BC.
Meanwhile, traders from today's Lebanon were travelling all over the Mediterannean and founding colonies. The Phoenicians, as they were called, build such a huge colonial empire such that the city of Cordoba in Spain was once a Phoenician colony. The Phoenicians also completed an imposiible mission; departing from the Sinai Peninsula, Phoenician sailors crossed the Red Sea, circled all of Africa, and sailed right back into the Mediterannean through the Strait of Gibraltar!
The very last of civilizations in Mesopotamia before the Persian invasions was the new Empire of Babylon that arose under the Emperor Nebuchadnezzar after he rebuilt the city of Babylon. But by the 6th century BC, Persia had annexed all of the Fertile Crescent.

The Arab Revolt

Date: June 1916 - October 1918
Location: Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Jordan, Palestine and Syria

Part of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I

Flag of the Arab Revolt

        After the disastrous surrender of a British Army at Kut (in Iraq) in April 1916, the focus shifted to a wider area. The British attempted to instigate an Arab uprising againist Ottoman rule in northern Arabia and Transjordan, and to link this with a more conventional military campaign to take control of Palestine. Persuaded by T.E Lawrence, Sharif Hussein ibn Ali of Mecca raised a revolt againist the Ottomans in June 1916, causing enormous disruption in Sinai and Palestine. General Allenby's British army entered Jerusalem in December 1917, and inflicted a devastating defeat on the Ottoman army at Megiddo in September 1918, ending the war in the region.

The 1848 Revolutions

Date: 23rd February 1848 - Early 1849
Location: Western and Central Europe

Cheering revolutionaries in Berlin after fighting in March 1848

      

        In central and western Europe, poor harvests in 1846-1847 had resulted in appalling hardship for peasantry. Combined with nationalist frustrations at the seeming impossibility of political change, this produced an astonishing outbreak of revolutionary movements in 1848 that touched almost all parts of Europe. In France, it led to the overthrow of the monarchy of Louis-Philippe and the establishment of the Second Republic.

        In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a more obviously nationalist series of uprisings almost overthrew Habsburg power to set up a number of new, ethnically based states. In the end the existing regime won out by offering concessions to the Hungarians, the most significant non-German component of the empire. They established the "Dual Monarchy", in which the ruler was emperor in Austria, but king of a theoretically separate Hungarian state. Popular uprisings in Italy and Germany, which seemed to promise statehood, were similarly premature, and ended in brutal suppressions.

The Unification of Germany

Date: 1864 - 1871
Location: Germany

18 January 1871: The proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. Bismarck appears in white. The Grand Duke of Baden stands beside Wilhelm, leading the cheers. Crown Prince Friedrich, later Friedrich III, stands on his father's right. Painting by Anton Von Werner.

        At the time of the 1848 Revolutions, Germany was a loose confederation of states, the most powerful among them being Prussia. From 1862, Prussia's Minister-President, Otto Von Bismarck, sought to secure the supremacy of Prussia withing central Europe by encouraging the other German states to unify under its leadership. The process began in earnest in 1864, when Prussia joined forces with Austria to annex the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark. Two years later, war broke out between Prussia and Austria, and a Prussian victory at Koniggratz in 1867 allowed Bismarck to exclude Austria from the German Confederation, and from any say in the constitutional course of the German principalities.

The German Empire

Date: 1871 - 1918

Location: Germany

Flag of the German Empire

        Bismarck was well aware that Napoleon III of France would never willingly accept a unified German state on his borders. He attempted to place a German Hohenzollern prince on the throne of Spain to encircle the French. As a result, Napoleon III declared war on Prussia and its German allies. Napoleon was captured after the battle of Sedan in September 1870, and though the French continued to resist under a new Republic, Bismarck soon had the victory he desired.

The German Reich
1871-1918

        In a humiliation of the French, the German empire was proclaimed at the Palace of Versailles on the outskirts of Paris on 18th of January 1871, with the Prussian ruler Wilhelm as its first emperor. The new Germany was in principle a federation of 25 states but there was no doubt that Prussia and Bismarck - champion of the unification - were very firmly in charge.

The Roman Golden Age

Date: 44 BC-138 AD

Location: Roman Empire

Commencing from the aftermath of Julius Caesar's triumphal conquests, all the way to the acquisitions of the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian of the 2nd century AD is referrred to as the Roman Golden Age. The ultimate expansion of the Roman Republic in Julius Caesar's reign to include regions Gaul and Britannia gave the nation a boost in its prospering of economy. However, his nephew, Augustus Caesar, was elected first emperor of a great Roman Empire in 27 BC. Under Augustus's rule, Rome persisted over a cosmic, abounding empire that had begun having its proficient merchants reaching as far east as India and China. Rebellious parts in Brittania and Iberia were brought under direct rule as the empire continued to prosper and begot a 150-year period in which almost absolute peace was present. This long period was said to be the 'Pax Romana', or Roman Peace. This was the height of the golden age of Rome with respect to economy.
Although Britannia was twice invaded by Julius Caesar, the Celts continued revolting against Roman rule. The only crime in which the Pax Romana did was the mistreatment of Christians and the torture of Jesus Christ in the reign of Emperor Tiberius. The third invasion of Britannia took place in 54-55 AD and was led by Emperor Nero; after that, the Celts never suceeded in a revolt (but later after the fall of Rome, Anglo-Saxons settled in Britannia as the Celts retreated to Cornwall). Nevertheless, Nero and his successor Caligula were very cruel rulers to their people. Caligula was a crazy man that did what no one would ever dare to! When he seized the Roman seat of power, he married and murdered his sister, had innocent people slaughtered, and elected his horse as minister!
Converesly, two victorious emperors followed them, Trajan (98-117 AD) and Hadrian (117-138 AD), which brought areas such as Dacia, Illyricum, and Mesopotamia (today's Romania, the former Yugoslav Republics, and Iraq) under divine Roman rule. After all the accomplishments of two of the greatest emperors of Rome, the empire began collapsing. The overdose of trading with the Far East was said to import plagues alongside. Forces in Gaul and Britannia crumbled as the empire was displayed for invasion by many Germanic barbarians... and so became the faith of the once magnificent nation.

The Peloponnesian War

Date: 435 - 404 BC
Location: Greece, Sicily, Asia Minor

The city-states of Athens and Sparta were major powers of the Greek world in the classical times. Like most nation pairs with equivalent power, the city-states were on a continuous competition throughout history. However, in 431 BC, the alliances formed on both sides declared war on each other. The alliances formed, which each one of Athens and Sparta led, where known as the Delian League (Athens) and the Peloponnesian League (Sparta). During the first period of the war, which we call the Archidamian Period; Athens, its army, and its navy were governed and ruled by Pericles. On the other hand, Sparta had Archidamus II as its king and commander-in-chief. The raging war has led to a resemblence to World War II, with two hostile sides fighting for world domination. Instead, the world here was the mainland of Greece, the shores of Sicily, and most colonies in northwestern Anatolia. The main difference of both city-states that resulted with the war was the disagreement on its oligarchic government. Every city-state developed strategies that mostly suite its militaristic conditions and 'talents'. For instance, Sparta preferred attacking on land, whereas the Athenians defended on land and raided at sea, maintaining their continuous foreign trading.
The second period of the war came along with the Treaty of Nicias, when the war in Peloponnesus resumed right after. During that period, Athens launched an enormous fleet to invade Syracuse, followed by the devastated Spartan invasion of Attica. Both invasions did not succeed, allowing the partial weakening of the two city-states. With the dawn of the Ionian War, which was the last period of the war, came the gradual fall of the Athenian Empire. In 405 BC, the Athenian fleet was crushed by one of Sparta, which ended the Athenian naval power. in 404 BC, Athens surrendered... the city-state's glories now stand as shadows of the now meagre Athens.

The Battle of Waterloo

Date: June 18, 1815

Location: Waterloo, Belgium

        Many people speak of the Battle of Waterloo as the 'destiny of the history of modern Europe' because of its enthusiastic decision of Napoleon's destiny, whether he will continue his military conquests or get defeated. the Allied army was actually made of not only British and Prussian soldiers, but also Austrian, Russian, and Portuguese soldiers within. The 46-year-old Duke of Wellington, commander of the British army, awaited Napoleon, his greatest rival, to challenge him for the final battle. The duke also had his Prussian ally, General Von Blucher, who much helped in the battle. So Napoleon raised an army of some 75,000 men and marched north to the lowlands where the Anglo-Prussian army stood. On June 18, 1815 at about 11:00 a.m., the Battle of Waterloo had commenced. The Brussels road was an important landmark; if it was unclogged, Napoleon could advance once again into Belgium. The duke's clever military tactics of defending steadily and calmly on the hills of Mont-Saint-Jean seemed outstanding and extremely efficient. It seemed as though he knew the fact, or decision, the Brussels road had. Controlling a hill is a very lucky state in the terms of warfare, where the defender has a great advantage over his enemy. The key was the advantage of the British artillery, which could fire ammunition into much distant areas when on leveled land. This meant that the artillery would fire for more time, smashing the infantrymen and breaking their formations. The Prussian forces, however advanced into Napoleon's right flank. By 5:00 p.m., Napoleon's army began retreating, even the Imperial Guard that was the most elite of infantry, as Napoleon was captured once again by the British.

        Once again, the British shipped Napoleon back to England, and later to a colony of theirs in the south atlantic, the Island of St. Helena, alongside his wife and kids. The British also sent the colony's governor to the island to watch over Napoleon's actions.

The Congress of Vienna

Date: October, 1814 - July, 1815

Location: Vienna, Austrian Empire

Europe in 1815

        In 1815, the Congress of Vienna took place. It was a political agreement to redraw the map of Europe after the revolutionary Napoleonic conquests and changes and restore the old Bourbon Dynasty of France. France gained its borders of 1792, the territories of the Duchy of Warsaw were divided amongst Prussia and Russia, Italy and Germany were left divided, Sweden annexed Norway from Denmark, Austria reclaimed the Kingdom of Venetian Lombardy and Dalmatia, and Russia acquired Bessarabia from the Ottoman Empire. 
        Moreover, a new organization called the 'German Confederation' was established, along with the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which includes Belgium, and the Swiss Confederation. Once again King Louis XVIII was restored to the French throne. By now, Europe was transformed back to its regular order, which is primarily the reason of the congress, and is what the British, Prussians, Austrians, and Russians wished most.

The Federation of Australia

Date: 1872-1901
Location: Oceania

Flag of the Commonwealth of Australia

        By the end of the 19th century, the Australian colonies had overcome their early travails, which included conflicts with the Aboriginal peoples, who were gradually pushed out of their lands by European settlers.

A growing national self-consciousness emerged, which demanded more than the status of a mere colony of the British Crown. The connection of the six Australian colonies by telegraph in 1872 fuelled the sense of a common destiny and demands for "federation" as a single nation grew.

The Royal Exhibition building in the city of Melbourne housed
the first session of Australia's Federal Parliament on 9 May 1901

        A Federal Council was finally established in 1895, but it had no control over revenue. The 1898 Constitution Bill established a much stronger federal system, and on 1st of January 1901, today's Commonwealth of Australia came into being.

The Aztecs

Date: 1168-1520
Location: Mexico

The Aztec Pyramid at St. Cecilia Acatitlan, Mexico State

        The Aztecs, or the Mexica as they call themselves began as an insignificant group in the Valley of Mexico, an area racked by constant warfare in the 13th century and ruled by petty kingdoms. They grew to be, by the 15th century, the most powerful people in Mesoamerica.

Aztec Culture

        Aztec culture is the culture of the people referred to as Aztecs, but since all ethnic groups of central Mexico in the post classic period shared most basic cultural traits, many of the basic traits of Aztec culture cannot be said to be exclusive for the Aztecs. For the same reason the notion of "Aztec civilization" is best understood as a particular horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization.

The Coat of Arms of Mexico, from Aztec mythology

Aztec Religion

        The Aztecs had a large number of gods, related to the creation of the cosmos, to the sun, and to fertility, death, and war. The two main temples of Tenochtitlan were dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, and Tlaloc, the god of rain and water. Another important god, Quetzalcoatl, was the feathered-serpent god of wind, creativity, and fertility. The Aztecs believed that if they did not satisfy the gods with sacrifices of blood, the sun would not continue its journey across the sky.

The Dutch Revolt

Date: 1568 to 1648
Place: Belgium & the Netherlands
Result: Treaty of Munster
             Independence of the Dutch Republic

Flag of the Dutch Republic

        Ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy in the 15th century, by the 16th century the Netherlands had fallen into the domains of the Hapsburg empire. While its ruler Charles V was perceived as sympathetic to Dutch interests, his successor Philip II of Spain spoke neither Dutch nor French, and was more intolerant of Dutch Protestantism.

        In 1567, an attempt by the Hapsburg governor, the Duke of Alba, to repress religious unrest led to open revolt the following year. Although initially suppressed, the revolt flared up again in 1572.
        In 1579, a union of provinces loyal to Spain was formed in the south of the Netherlands. This was countered by the Union of Utrecht in the north which under William of Orange, became independent from Spain. Although the Spanish general Parma retook the largest city of the Utrecht union, Antwerp, in 1585, the Spanish could not make any more headway to the north.

        This was acknowledged in a 12-year truce in 1609, and, though the Spanish tried again to recapture the rebellious provinces during the Thirty Years' War, at its end in 1648 Spain was finally forced to officially recognize Dutch independence.

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