The Unification of Germany

Date: 1864 - 1871
Location: Germany

18 January 1871: The proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. Bismarck appears in white. The Grand Duke of Baden stands beside Wilhelm, leading the cheers. Crown Prince Friedrich, later Friedrich III, stands on his father's right. Painting by Anton Von Werner.

        At the time of the 1848 Revolutions, Germany was a loose confederation of states, the most powerful among them being Prussia. From 1862, Prussia's Minister-President, Otto Von Bismarck, sought to secure the supremacy of Prussia withing central Europe by encouraging the other German states to unify under its leadership. The process began in earnest in 1864, when Prussia joined forces with Austria to annex the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark. Two years later, war broke out between Prussia and Austria, and a Prussian victory at Koniggratz in 1867 allowed Bismarck to exclude Austria from the German Confederation, and from any say in the constitutional course of the German principalities.

The German Empire

Date: 1871 - 1918

Location: Germany

Flag of the German Empire

        Bismarck was well aware that Napoleon III of France would never willingly accept a unified German state on his borders. He attempted to place a German Hohenzollern prince on the throne of Spain to encircle the French. As a result, Napoleon III declared war on Prussia and its German allies. Napoleon was captured after the battle of Sedan in September 1870, and though the French continued to resist under a new Republic, Bismarck soon had the victory he desired.

The German Reich
1871-1918

        In a humiliation of the French, the German empire was proclaimed at the Palace of Versailles on the outskirts of Paris on 18th of January 1871, with the Prussian ruler Wilhelm as its first emperor. The new Germany was in principle a federation of 25 states but there was no doubt that Prussia and Bismarck - champion of the unification - were very firmly in charge.

The Roman Golden Age

Date: 44 BC-138 AD

Location: Roman Empire

Commencing from the aftermath of Julius Caesar's triumphal conquests, all the way to the acquisitions of the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian of the 2nd century AD is referrred to as the Roman Golden Age. The ultimate expansion of the Roman Republic in Julius Caesar's reign to include regions Gaul and Britannia gave the nation a boost in its prospering of economy. However, his nephew, Augustus Caesar, was elected first emperor of a great Roman Empire in 27 BC. Under Augustus's rule, Rome persisted over a cosmic, abounding empire that had begun having its proficient merchants reaching as far east as India and China. Rebellious parts in Brittania and Iberia were brought under direct rule as the empire continued to prosper and begot a 150-year period in which almost absolute peace was present. This long period was said to be the 'Pax Romana', or Roman Peace. This was the height of the golden age of Rome with respect to economy.
Although Britannia was twice invaded by Julius Caesar, the Celts continued revolting against Roman rule. The only crime in which the Pax Romana did was the mistreatment of Christians and the torture of Jesus Christ in the reign of Emperor Tiberius. The third invasion of Britannia took place in 54-55 AD and was led by Emperor Nero; after that, the Celts never suceeded in a revolt (but later after the fall of Rome, Anglo-Saxons settled in Britannia as the Celts retreated to Cornwall). Nevertheless, Nero and his successor Caligula were very cruel rulers to their people. Caligula was a crazy man that did what no one would ever dare to! When he seized the Roman seat of power, he married and murdered his sister, had innocent people slaughtered, and elected his horse as minister!
Converesly, two victorious emperors followed them, Trajan (98-117 AD) and Hadrian (117-138 AD), which brought areas such as Dacia, Illyricum, and Mesopotamia (today's Romania, the former Yugoslav Republics, and Iraq) under divine Roman rule. After all the accomplishments of two of the greatest emperors of Rome, the empire began collapsing. The overdose of trading with the Far East was said to import plagues alongside. Forces in Gaul and Britannia crumbled as the empire was displayed for invasion by many Germanic barbarians... and so became the faith of the once magnificent nation.

The Peloponnesian War

Date: 435 - 404 BC
Location: Greece, Sicily, Asia Minor

The city-states of Athens and Sparta were major powers of the Greek world in the classical times. Like most nation pairs with equivalent power, the city-states were on a continuous competition throughout history. However, in 431 BC, the alliances formed on both sides declared war on each other. The alliances formed, which each one of Athens and Sparta led, where known as the Delian League (Athens) and the Peloponnesian League (Sparta). During the first period of the war, which we call the Archidamian Period; Athens, its army, and its navy were governed and ruled by Pericles. On the other hand, Sparta had Archidamus II as its king and commander-in-chief. The raging war has led to a resemblence to World War II, with two hostile sides fighting for world domination. Instead, the world here was the mainland of Greece, the shores of Sicily, and most colonies in northwestern Anatolia. The main difference of both city-states that resulted with the war was the disagreement on its oligarchic government. Every city-state developed strategies that mostly suite its militaristic conditions and 'talents'. For instance, Sparta preferred attacking on land, whereas the Athenians defended on land and raided at sea, maintaining their continuous foreign trading.
The second period of the war came along with the Treaty of Nicias, when the war in Peloponnesus resumed right after. During that period, Athens launched an enormous fleet to invade Syracuse, followed by the devastated Spartan invasion of Attica. Both invasions did not succeed, allowing the partial weakening of the two city-states. With the dawn of the Ionian War, which was the last period of the war, came the gradual fall of the Athenian Empire. In 405 BC, the Athenian fleet was crushed by one of Sparta, which ended the Athenian naval power. in 404 BC, Athens surrendered... the city-state's glories now stand as shadows of the now meagre Athens.

The Battle of Waterloo

Date: June 18, 1815

Location: Waterloo, Belgium

        Many people speak of the Battle of Waterloo as the 'destiny of the history of modern Europe' because of its enthusiastic decision of Napoleon's destiny, whether he will continue his military conquests or get defeated. the Allied army was actually made of not only British and Prussian soldiers, but also Austrian, Russian, and Portuguese soldiers within. The 46-year-old Duke of Wellington, commander of the British army, awaited Napoleon, his greatest rival, to challenge him for the final battle. The duke also had his Prussian ally, General Von Blucher, who much helped in the battle. So Napoleon raised an army of some 75,000 men and marched north to the lowlands where the Anglo-Prussian army stood. On June 18, 1815 at about 11:00 a.m., the Battle of Waterloo had commenced. The Brussels road was an important landmark; if it was unclogged, Napoleon could advance once again into Belgium. The duke's clever military tactics of defending steadily and calmly on the hills of Mont-Saint-Jean seemed outstanding and extremely efficient. It seemed as though he knew the fact, or decision, the Brussels road had. Controlling a hill is a very lucky state in the terms of warfare, where the defender has a great advantage over his enemy. The key was the advantage of the British artillery, which could fire ammunition into much distant areas when on leveled land. This meant that the artillery would fire for more time, smashing the infantrymen and breaking their formations. The Prussian forces, however advanced into Napoleon's right flank. By 5:00 p.m., Napoleon's army began retreating, even the Imperial Guard that was the most elite of infantry, as Napoleon was captured once again by the British.

        Once again, the British shipped Napoleon back to England, and later to a colony of theirs in the south atlantic, the Island of St. Helena, alongside his wife and kids. The British also sent the colony's governor to the island to watch over Napoleon's actions.

The Congress of Vienna

Date: October, 1814 - July, 1815

Location: Vienna, Austrian Empire

Europe in 1815

        In 1815, the Congress of Vienna took place. It was a political agreement to redraw the map of Europe after the revolutionary Napoleonic conquests and changes and restore the old Bourbon Dynasty of France. France gained its borders of 1792, the territories of the Duchy of Warsaw were divided amongst Prussia and Russia, Italy and Germany were left divided, Sweden annexed Norway from Denmark, Austria reclaimed the Kingdom of Venetian Lombardy and Dalmatia, and Russia acquired Bessarabia from the Ottoman Empire. 
        Moreover, a new organization called the 'German Confederation' was established, along with the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which includes Belgium, and the Swiss Confederation. Once again King Louis XVIII was restored to the French throne. By now, Europe was transformed back to its regular order, which is primarily the reason of the congress, and is what the British, Prussians, Austrians, and Russians wished most.

The Federation of Australia

Date: 1872-1901
Location: Oceania

Flag of the Commonwealth of Australia

        By the end of the 19th century, the Australian colonies had overcome their early travails, which included conflicts with the Aboriginal peoples, who were gradually pushed out of their lands by European settlers.

A growing national self-consciousness emerged, which demanded more than the status of a mere colony of the British Crown. The connection of the six Australian colonies by telegraph in 1872 fuelled the sense of a common destiny and demands for "federation" as a single nation grew.

The Royal Exhibition building in the city of Melbourne housed
the first session of Australia's Federal Parliament on 9 May 1901

        A Federal Council was finally established in 1895, but it had no control over revenue. The 1898 Constitution Bill established a much stronger federal system, and on 1st of January 1901, today's Commonwealth of Australia came into being.

The Aztecs

Date: 1168-1520
Location: Mexico

The Aztec Pyramid at St. Cecilia Acatitlan, Mexico State

        The Aztecs, or the Mexica as they call themselves began as an insignificant group in the Valley of Mexico, an area racked by constant warfare in the 13th century and ruled by petty kingdoms. They grew to be, by the 15th century, the most powerful people in Mesoamerica.

Aztec Culture

        Aztec culture is the culture of the people referred to as Aztecs, but since all ethnic groups of central Mexico in the post classic period shared most basic cultural traits, many of the basic traits of Aztec culture cannot be said to be exclusive for the Aztecs. For the same reason the notion of "Aztec civilization" is best understood as a particular horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization.

The Coat of Arms of Mexico, from Aztec mythology

Aztec Religion

        The Aztecs had a large number of gods, related to the creation of the cosmos, to the sun, and to fertility, death, and war. The two main temples of Tenochtitlan were dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, and Tlaloc, the god of rain and water. Another important god, Quetzalcoatl, was the feathered-serpent god of wind, creativity, and fertility. The Aztecs believed that if they did not satisfy the gods with sacrifices of blood, the sun would not continue its journey across the sky.

The Dutch Revolt

Date: 1568 to 1648
Place: Belgium & the Netherlands
Result: Treaty of Munster
             Independence of the Dutch Republic

Flag of the Dutch Republic

        Ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy in the 15th century, by the 16th century the Netherlands had fallen into the domains of the Hapsburg empire. While its ruler Charles V was perceived as sympathetic to Dutch interests, his successor Philip II of Spain spoke neither Dutch nor French, and was more intolerant of Dutch Protestantism.

        In 1567, an attempt by the Hapsburg governor, the Duke of Alba, to repress religious unrest led to open revolt the following year. Although initially suppressed, the revolt flared up again in 1572.
        In 1579, a union of provinces loyal to Spain was formed in the south of the Netherlands. This was countered by the Union of Utrecht in the north which under William of Orange, became independent from Spain. Although the Spanish general Parma retook the largest city of the Utrecht union, Antwerp, in 1585, the Spanish could not make any more headway to the north.

        This was acknowledged in a 12-year truce in 1609, and, though the Spanish tried again to recapture the rebellious provinces during the Thirty Years' War, at its end in 1648 Spain was finally forced to officially recognize Dutch independence.